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**Module Six Discussion Replies**
The minimum length for each of your replies to classmates in order to earn any credit is 150 words.
Indyah:
**A**. Bourdieu’s works discuss the concept of habitus as the intersection of the individual and society (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396). Garner and Hancock describe there being “no separation between the individual and society.” Habitus is defined as “the shared mode of perception, judgement, and behavioural dispositions of a category of people, particularly a class,” (p. 390). However, Garner and Hancock expand on this definition to include that habitus acts as both a product and reproducer of society through the actions of individuals (p. 396). Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 399) explains how our history produces our individual practices, often causing us to use those practices in various contexts. This supports the claim that society and the individual are connected, as the concept of habitus demonstrates how they directly interact with one another. While Bourdieu does claim that habitus is shared amongst a class by way of their past experiences, he also emphasizes its flexibility. One’s habitus can change, or an individual can override it (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396).
Bourdieu also discusses the concept of social capital. Garner and Hancock (2014, p. 390) explain that social classes “are distinguished by four kinds of capital: economic… social… cultural… and symbolic.” Different classes control different types and amounts of capital. Social capital can refer to one’s position in networks and groups. In discussing social capital, Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 393) illustrates how one acquires social capital and their typical experiences. Social capital can come through connections such as clubs or family. Those who have a lot of social capital are usually wealthy, giving them the resources to perform “social labour.” This labor requires money and time, and it is used to create more social capital. Additionally, Bourdieu explains that social capital can be converted to economic capital and vice versa.
Finally, Bourdieu discusses the differences between a field and an apparatus. He describes a field as a space where “agents and institutions are engaged in struggle, with unequal strengths, and in accordance with the rules constituting that field of play, to appropriate the specific profits at stake in the game,” (Bourdieu, 1993 as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 392). The key difference between a field and an apparatus is the “struggle” or the resistance. A field consists of institutions competing for resources or different forms of capital. It can turn into an apparatus when an institution has complete domination without the ability for resistance. In this context, apparatuses are a type of field, but fields are a much broader concept (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 391). Not all fields are apparatuses.
**B**. The concept of habitus as the intersection of the individual and society is relevant to modern America. Habitus refers to the perceptions, judgements, and behavioral dispositions shared by a group of a people. These are developed through past experiences and socialization. The concept of habitus helps to understand the interconnectedness of the individual and society, because the society contributes to the creation of these shared dispositions, and in turn these dispositions work through individuals to reinforce the structures in society that created the initial dispositions. For instance, this concept can be observed in generational/community cycles. Tedx Talks (2020) claims that boys who are exposed to domestic violence in the home are 10x more likely to become abusers, girls exposed to domestic violence are more likely to become victims of sexual or physical abuse, perpetuating the cycle of female victimization. Witnessing an abuse, poverty, incarceration, or drug use can lead to individuals developing certain beliefs and perceptions around those topics that align with their experiences. This habitus can lead to certain behaviors that continue these cycles. However, Bourdieu also emphasizes that one’s habitus is not always an accurate predictor of one’s behavior, as it can change with new knowledge or be overridden (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396). Similarly, someone witnessing these events does not always continue the cycle. Additionally, this concept can be applied to geographical communities. Many communities stay the same unless acted upon by an outside force. For instance, impoverished communities may remain impoverished unless given external aid or until the area is gentrified. This relates to Garner and Hancock’s (2014, p. 397) statement, “habitus reflects and reproduces the very habitat from which it emerged.” People will communicate with those physically around them who tend to have similar upbringings. This contributes to the development of their habitus and potentially the future of their community.
Bourdieu’s concept of social capital is very relevant to modern American society, especially with the rise of social media. In society, we are able to see the value of social capital and the conversion from social capital to economic capital. Social media users with a lot of followers (social capital) are able monetize their page (economic capital). Additionally, gaining more followers requires more posts, time, and potentially money. This is similar to the concept of social labor. Social capital is also relevant in today’s higher education system. Many black students may choose to attend a PWI over an HBCU for its large network. This network (social capital) could lead to better job opportunities (economic capital). Additionally, Pringle (2023) claims that PWIs tend to have a larger financial aid offers than HBCUs, contributing to the economic capital.
Finally, Bourdieu’s concept of fields is relevant today, especially in the form of apparatuses. Many institutions dominate areas of society. For example, education systems control what we learn and how we learn with no room for resistance, as education attainment is how we achieve success in society. Schools reinforce capitalist values through their structure. Currently, there is much debate on what should be taught in schools. However, this may be an example of domination by the state. An article by Gross (2022) discusses how legislation is limiting the teaching of topics such as gender and sexuality, race, and slavery. This is especially important as the knowledge of these topics can lead to resistance and rebellion. This allows the state to remain in power and continue to acquire capital with little resistance to the systems in place.
**References**
Garner, R. & Hancock, B. H. (2014). Social theory a reader: Continuity and confrontation (3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Gross, T. (2022, February 3). From slavery to socialism, new legislation restricts what teachers can discuss. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2022/02/03/1077878538/legislation-restricts-what-teachers-can-discuss
Pringle, S. (2023, February 3). Making a dollar outta 15 cents: Conversations around funding & social mobility at HBCUs – National College Attainment Network. National College Attainment Network. https://www.ncan.org/news/630515/Making-A-Dollar-Outta-15-Cents-Conversations-Around-Funding–Social-Mobility-at-HBCUs.htm
Tedx Talks. (2020, February 10). A mile in her shoes: changing perspective on domestic violence | Ryan Calvert | TEDxFrisco [Video]. YouTube.
[https://youtu.be/wLNa6qwVpbA?si=S48ugeA8FSO4N53rLinks to an external site.](https://youtu.be/wLNa6qwVpbA?si=S48ugeA8FSO4N53r)
Angela:
**A.**
**_Insight into Foucault’s Concept of Subject, Power and Discipline_**
Foucault outlines how forms of power such as discipline, monitoring, and punishment are utilized to apply control over subjects, with the subjects in question being humans. The lessons of history have shown us that the use of physical punishment was a method of exercising control and dominance over other people. Foucault explains premodern punishment as torture and a ‘horrifying public spectacle of an execution’ (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 368). Less than eighty years later, surveillance is used as a form of punishment. The offender has to deal with new kinds of social control that try to keep their bodies and movements in check by urging them to self-regulate and follow rules (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.369).
Foucault (1975) describes ‘Panopticon,
_’_ an architectural design created by Jeremy Bentham, and its use for the deviant to be monitored. The building includes small cells, with a center tower where a central person can observe Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.371). “They are like so many cages, in which each actor is alone, perfectly individualized and constantly visible” Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 371). The format of the building makes it possible to know what is going on in an instant. The goal is to do opposite of the ‘dungeon’ and provide light Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, pp. 371-372). There are a variety of subject types provided by Foucault. When it comes to employees, there is less dishonesty and distractions, which, in turn, allows for more effective output Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 372). When it comes to prisoners, there is no risk of escaping. When it comes to schoolchildren, there is no cheating and no chatting off topic Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 372).
**_Bourdieu’s “Habitus”_**
According to Bourdieu (1993) as a result of conditioning, the habitus is a strong tool for making new things because it likes to repeat objective reasoning even as it changes. It's not always easy to guess, and as Don Quixote shows, its patterns can lead to hysteresis Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). There are simple rules in the habitus that make it a self-correcting computer program that can come up with an endless number of answers that can't be figured out straight from the conditions under which it was made Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 391). Because habits shape how we see things, we need to make changes all the time to be able to deal with new and unexpected events. The "situation" is like the state that makes the habitus possible. If there aren't any set conditions for satisfaction, habitus may be the source of resentment that builds up until the right time, like the power of an authoritarian foreman Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). "The social world is a huge storehouse of accumulated aggression that comes to the surface when the conditions are right for it to happen" Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Gardner and Hancock, p. 392).
According to Bourdieu, the concept of the "apparatus" reintroduces unhappy functionalism: it is an "infernal engine," designed to achieve specific goals Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). Under specific settings, education systems, the state, the church, and political parties are not apparatuses, but rather fields and they may begin to operate as devices Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.392). In a field, agents and institutions compete for the specific rewards at risk in that game while having uneven strengths and adhering to the norms that govern that field. Those who control the field have the tools to use to their advantage; nonetheless, they must contend with the opposition of the dominated agents (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.392). The field becomes an apparatus when those in positions of authority are able to prevent those under their control from resisting, opposing, or responding. This implies that the lower class, such as the working class and activists, can only be subdued; the dialectic and conflict that comprise the field will stop when everything shifts downward and the effects of dominance take over Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392).
**_Bourdieu’s The Logic of Practice_**
The social world is seen as a show where someone watches with a "point of view," thinking about the action through the lens of his relationship with the object Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 396). This observer then applies his relationship to the object and acts as if it were only there for knowledge and all interactions were symbolic. Individuals in high positions in society view the social world as either a representation (as in idealist philosophy, but also through paintings) or a performance (as in theater or music), and behaviors are seen as nothing more than playing roles, following rules, or carrying out plans. The theory of practice says that knowledge objects are made, not just stored. The habitus, which is a set of structured, organizing dispositions, is what makes this possible. Bourdieu wrote about this in 1990 (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 396). In other words, our background, the people we know, and the things we've done in the past all affect what we understand and know.
The passage indicates that one can forgo objectivist idealism without compromising the active engagement in seeing the world. This means putting yourself in "real activity as such (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397)," which means being actively present in the world so that the world can tell you what needs to be done and said. This calls for moving away from the realism that characterizes objectivism and a return to practice, the place where dialectic takes place, and how opus operandum and modus operandi interact Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397).
The "situational analysis" technique, which emphasizes the observation of individuals in many social contexts, is confined within the bounds of the rule and the exception. Bourdieu contends that there is a certain kind of logic that applies to daily acts, and that this logic is distinct from the formal, academic logic Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397). The habitus and social environment in which individuals function both have a role in shaping this practical logic. “Thus, the method known as situational analysis, which consists of observing people in a variety of social situations in order to determine the way in which individuals are able to exercise choices within the limits of a specified social structure” Gluckman (1961, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397).
**B.**
**_Modern Day – Surveillance, Subject, Power, and Discipline_**
The emphasis on standardized testing in school systems can be seen as a form of discipline, enforcing conformity and obedience to authority. The tight rules and regulations that are put on students show this even more clearly by shaping their behavior and way of thinking to fit with societal norms. For example, standardized tests in schools not only check how well students are doing in school, but they also set up a system where students learn to follow the rules and please adults in charge. Students are also subject to strict rules and regulations, which are similar to disciplinary actions that change behavior and thought to fit social norms. This shows how widespread discipline is in schools. The school's approach to disciplining bad behavior has come under scrutiny. For instance, a child who is being bullied may get an unjustified blow to the mouth. The Shelby County School System in Alabama placed both children on "in-school suspension" for the 2023–2024 academic year while they looked into the incident. The actual setting is a blank room with a Chromebook and no one-on-one teaching for a middle schooler who was subsequently determined to be "innocent." During public hearings, families of children who were subjected to exclusionary discipline made a strong case for the legislation, telling lawmakers about their experiences of not having the right to due process (Stryens-Fernandes @al.com, 2024). The summer of 2024, the State of Alabama passed a bill that I support which makes it more in-line with a definite process in place before kicking a child out of the classroom. "The social world is a huge storehouse of accumulated aggression that comes to the surface when the conditions are right for it to happen" Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Gardner and Hancock, p. 392).
Monitoring employees at work and judging their performance are examples of strict rules and laws that tell workers how to act and think, making sure they follow company standards. For instance, performance reviews not only show how productive workers are, but they also give them a reason to follow the rules and guidelines set by management at work. Companies watch what their workers type and do on the internet to make sure they're following company rules and not doing anything illegal. This shows how controlled and watched modern workplaces are. This much monitoring can make workers afraid and obedient, which will eventually change how they act to fit with what the company wants.
**_Modern Day – Habitus_**
Pierre Bourdieu's idea of habitus refers to the deeply rooted habits, skills, and attitudes that people pick up as they go through life Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 399) This idea is very important for understanding how people interact with and move through their social world. It is possible to use habitus to describe a number of social problems and events in modern American society, such as education and health care. The American school system often shows and promotes social differences. Rich families usually give their kids better educational tools and chances, which shapes their habits to help them do well in school and go to college. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds may have limited access to quality education due to financial constraints, lack of parental involvement, or inadequate school resources. This can result in lower academic achievement and limited future prospects for these students. In contrast, students from more affluent backgrounds may have access to a wider range of educational resources and opportunities, giving them an advantage in terms of academic success and future career prospects. Ultimately, addressing these disparities in educational opportunities based on social class is crucial in order to create a more inclusive education system.
Another area where habitus matters is access to healthcare for different social groups. Having quality, accessible healthcare affects our health and how well we thrive. People who have a habit of getting regular checkups and living a healthy life are more likely to stay healthy, while people who don't have this habit may have more health problems. The influence of social class on access to quality healthcare in the American healthcare system is significant. Those who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often face barriers such as lack of insurance, limited access to preventative care, and discriminatory practices. These disparities perpetuate a cycle of inequality in health outcomes, as those with higher social capital are able to navigate the system more effectively and receive better treatment. Bourdieu's concept of habitus helps to explain how these systemic inequalities are reproduced and maintained over time. Studying habitus can provide insights into the functioning of social systems and the interactions within social settings. It highlights the significance of addressing fundamental imbalances.
**_Modern Day – Logic of Practice_**
In applying Bourdieu's theory of practice to current American society, one can see how social hierarchies are maintained and reproduced through various cultural practices. The ways in which individuals navigate social spaces, consume cultural goods, and engage in symbolic rituals all play a role in reinforcing existing power dynamics. By analyzing these practices through the lens of Bourdieu's theory, one can gain a deeper understanding of how social inequality is perpetuated and potentially identify ways to challenge and disrupt these structures. One way to understand the concept of "cultural capital" is the way that some cultural preferences and tastes are rewarded and valued in society, which causes people who do not fit in to be excluded. Additionally, Bourdieu's concept of "habitus" can be observed in how individuals from different social backgrounds internalize and embody certain behaviors and attitudes that shape their interactions and opportunities within society. The country was shocked when the US Supreme Court reversed affirmative action. Thomas, a black justice, made his view known that he is against affirmative action because of the attached stigma (Totenberg, 2023). For instance, individuals from privileged backgrounds may have been raised with a sense of entitlement and confidence that allows them to navigate social situations more easily, while those from disadvantaged backgrounds may feel out of place and struggle to assert themselves. An example is Harvard's legacy admissions. People have talked a lot about and looked closely at Harvard's legacy admissions, which give students with family ties to the school special attention when it comes to the admissions process. Some people say that this practice is unfair to students of color because it favors white candidates. The Supreme Court's choice to end affirmative action in higher education made the argument stronger because it still let schools prioritize children of donors and legacy students. Scholarly and donor-related applicants from Harvard are six times more likely to be white; 70% of those who apply are white (Casey, 2023). Eliminating legacy choices could change the racial makeup of the accepted students, which could mean that more students of color can go. A study found that 43% of white students accepted to Harvard were legacy students, athletes, children of teachers, or relatives of donors. For Black, Latino, and Asian American students, this number dropped by a huge amount.
**References**
Casey, M. (2023, July 25).
_Education Department opens an investigation into Harvard’s legacy admissions_. AP News.
[https://apnews.com/article/legacy-admissions-harvard-affirmative-action-diversity-24321f3814d5feec6d380d18c8b6c2e1Links to an external site.](https://apnews.com/article/legacy-admissions-harvard-affirmative-action-diversity-24321f3814d5feec6d380d18c8b6c2e1)
Garner, R., & Black Hawk Hancock. (2014).
_Social Theory: Continuity and Confrontation: A Reader._ University of Toronto Press; Toronto.
stryens-fernandes @al.com, S. T.-F. |. (2024, April 26).
_Alabama passes bill making it harder to kick students out of school_. Al.
[https://www.al.com/education/2024/04/alabama-passes-bill-making-it-harder-to-kick-students-out-of-school.htmlLinks to an external site.](https://www.al.com/education/2024/04/alabama-passes-bill-making-it-harder-to-kick-students-out-of-school.html)
Totenberg, N. (2023, June 29).
_Supreme Court Guts Affirmative Action, Effectively Ending Race-Conscious Admissions_. NPR.
[https://www.npr.org/2023/06/29/1181138066/affirmative-action-supreme-court-decisionLinks to an external site.](https://www.npr.org/2023/06/29/1181138066/affirmative-action-supreme-court-decision)
**## ModuleSixDiscussionReplies.docx**
**Module Six Discussion Replies**
The minimum length for each of your replies to classmates in order to earn any credit is 150 words.
Indyah:
**A**. Bourdieu’s works discuss the concept of habitus as the intersection of the individual and society (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396). Garner and Hancock describe there being “no separation between the individual and society.” Habitus is defined as “the shared mode of perception, judgement, and behavioural dispositions of a category of people, particularly a class,” (p. 390). However, Garner and Hancock expand on this definition to include that habitus acts as both a product and reproducer of society through the actions of individuals (p. 396). Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 399) explains how our history produces our individual practices, often causing us to use those practices in various contexts. This supports the claim that society and the individual are connected, as the concept of habitus demonstrates how they directly interact with one another. While Bourdieu does claim that habitus is shared amongst a class by way of their past experiences, he also emphasizes its flexibility. One’s habitus can change, or an individual can override it (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396).
Bourdieu also discusses the concept of social capital. Garner and Hancock (2014, p. 390) explain that social classes “are distinguished by four kinds of capital: economic… social… cultural… and symbolic.” Different classes control different types and amounts of capital. Social capital can refer to one’s position in networks and groups. In discussing social capital, Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 393) illustrates how one acquires social capital and their typical experiences. Social capital can come through connections such as clubs or family. Those who have a lot of social capital are usually wealthy, giving them the resources to perform “social labour.” This labor requires money and time, and it is used to create more social capital. Additionally, Bourdieu explains that social capital can be converted to economic capital and vice versa.
Finally, Bourdieu discusses the differences between a field and an apparatus. He describes a field as a space where “agents and institutions are engaged in struggle, with unequal strengths, and in accordance with the rules constituting that field of play, to appropriate the specific profits at stake in the game,” (Bourdieu, 1993 as cited in Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 392). The key difference between a field and an apparatus is the “struggle” or the resistance. A field consists of institutions competing for resources or different forms of capital. It can turn into an apparatus when an institution has complete domination without the ability for resistance. In this context, apparatuses are a type of field, but fields are a much broader concept (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 391). Not all fields are apparatuses.
**B**. The concept of habitus as the intersection of the individual and society is relevant to modern America. Habitus refers to the perceptions, judgements, and behavioral dispositions shared by a group of a people. These are developed through past experiences and socialization. The concept of habitus helps to understand the interconnectedness of the individual and society, because the society contributes to the creation of these shared dispositions, and in turn these dispositions work through individuals to reinforce the structures in society that created the initial dispositions. For instance, this concept can be observed in generational/community cycles. Tedx Talks (2020) claims that boys who are exposed to domestic violence in the home are 10x more likely to become abusers, girls exposed to domestic violence are more likely to become victims of sexual or physical abuse, perpetuating the cycle of female victimization. Witnessing an abuse, poverty, incarceration, or drug use can lead to individuals developing certain beliefs and perceptions around those topics that align with their experiences. This habitus can lead to certain behaviors that continue these cycles. However, Bourdieu also emphasizes that one’s habitus is not always an accurate predictor of one’s behavior, as it can change with new knowledge or be overridden (Garner & Hancock, 2014, p. 396). Similarly, someone witnessing these events does not always continue the cycle. Additionally, this concept can be applied to geographical communities. Many communities stay the same unless acted upon by an outside force. For instance, impoverished communities may remain impoverished unless given external aid or until the area is gentrified. This relates to Garner and Hancock’s (2014, p. 397) statement, “habitus reflects and reproduces the very habitat from which it emerged.” People will communicate with those physically around them who tend to have similar upbringings. This contributes to the development of their habitus and potentially the future of their community.
Bourdieu’s concept of social capital is very relevant to modern American society, especially with the rise of social media. In society, we are able to see the value of social capital and the conversion from social capital to economic capital. Social media users with a lot of followers (social capital) are able monetize their page (economic capital). Additionally, gaining more followers requires more posts, time, and potentially money. This is similar to the concept of social labor. Social capital is also relevant in today’s higher education system. Many black students may choose to attend a PWI over an HBCU for its large network. This network (social capital) could lead to better job opportunities (economic capital). Additionally, Pringle (2023) claims that PWIs tend to have a larger financial aid offers than HBCUs, contributing to the economic capital.
Finally, Bourdieu’s concept of fields is relevant today, especially in the form of apparatuses. Many institutions dominate areas of society. For example, education systems control what we learn and how we learn with no room for resistance, as education attainment is how we achieve success in society. Schools reinforce capitalist values through their structure. Currently, there is much debate on what should be taught in schools. However, this may be an example of domination by the state. An article by Gross (2022) discusses how legislation is limiting the teaching of topics such as gender and sexuality, race, and slavery. This is especially important as the knowledge of these topics can lead to resistance and rebellion. This allows the state to remain in power and continue to acquire capital with little resistance to the systems in place.
**References**
Garner, R. & Hancock, B. H. (2014). Social theory a reader: Continuity and confrontation (3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Gross, T. (2022, February 3). From slavery to socialism, new legislation restricts what teachers can discuss. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2022/02/03/1077878538/legislation-restricts-what-teachers-can-discuss
Pringle, S. (2023, February 3). Making a dollar outta 15 cents: Conversations around funding & social mobility at HBCUs – National College Attainment Network. National College Attainment Network. https://www.ncan.org/news/630515/Making-A-Dollar-Outta-15-Cents-Conversations-Around-Funding–Social-Mobility-at-HBCUs.htm
Tedx Talks. (2020, February 10). A mile in her shoes: changing perspective on domestic violence | Ryan Calvert | TEDxFrisco [Video]. YouTube.
[https://youtu.be/wLNa6qwVpbA?si=S48ugeA8FSO4N53rLinks to an external site.](https://youtu.be/wLNa6qwVpbA?si=S48ugeA8FSO4N53r)
Angela:
**A.**
**_Insight into Foucault’s Concept of Subject, Power and Discipline_**
Foucault outlines how forms of power such as discipline, monitoring, and punishment are utilized to apply control over subjects, with the subjects in question being humans. The lessons of history have shown us that the use of physical punishment was a method of exercising control and dominance over other people. Foucault explains premodern punishment as torture and a ‘horrifying public spectacle of an execution’ (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 368). Less than eighty years later, surveillance is used as a form of punishment. The offender has to deal with new kinds of social control that try to keep their bodies and movements in check by urging them to self-regulate and follow rules (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.369).
Foucault (1975) describes ‘Panopticon,
_’_ an architectural design created by Jeremy Bentham, and its use for the deviant to be monitored. The building includes small cells, with a center tower where a central person can observe Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.371). “They are like so many cages, in which each actor is alone, perfectly individualized and constantly visible” Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 371). The format of the building makes it possible to know what is going on in an instant. The goal is to do opposite of the ‘dungeon’ and provide light Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, pp. 371-372). There are a variety of subject types provided by Foucault. When it comes to employees, there is less dishonesty and distractions, which, in turn, allows for more effective output Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 372). When it comes to prisoners, there is no risk of escaping. When it comes to schoolchildren, there is no cheating and no chatting off topic Foucault (1975, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 372).
**_Bourdieu’s “Habitus”_**
According to Bourdieu (1993) as a result of conditioning, the habitus is a strong tool for making new things because it likes to repeat objective reasoning even as it changes. It's not always easy to guess, and as Don Quixote shows, its patterns can lead to hysteresis Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). There are simple rules in the habitus that make it a self-correcting computer program that can come up with an endless number of answers that can't be figured out straight from the conditions under which it was made Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 391). Because habits shape how we see things, we need to make changes all the time to be able to deal with new and unexpected events. The "situation" is like the state that makes the habitus possible. If there aren't any set conditions for satisfaction, habitus may be the source of resentment that builds up until the right time, like the power of an authoritarian foreman Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). "The social world is a huge storehouse of accumulated aggression that comes to the surface when the conditions are right for it to happen" Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Gardner and Hancock, p. 392).
According to Bourdieu, the concept of the "apparatus" reintroduces unhappy functionalism: it is an "infernal engine," designed to achieve specific goals Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392). Under specific settings, education systems, the state, the church, and political parties are not apparatuses, but rather fields and they may begin to operate as devices Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.392). In a field, agents and institutions compete for the specific rewards at risk in that game while having uneven strengths and adhering to the norms that govern that field. Those who control the field have the tools to use to their advantage; nonetheless, they must contend with the opposition of the dominated agents (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p.392). The field becomes an apparatus when those in positions of authority are able to prevent those under their control from resisting, opposing, or responding. This implies that the lower class, such as the working class and activists, can only be subdued; the dialectic and conflict that comprise the field will stop when everything shifts downward and the effects of dominance take over Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 392).
**_Bourdieu’s The Logic of Practice_**
The social world is seen as a show where someone watches with a "point of view," thinking about the action through the lens of his relationship with the object Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 396). This observer then applies his relationship to the object and acts as if it were only there for knowledge and all interactions were symbolic. Individuals in high positions in society view the social world as either a representation (as in idealist philosophy, but also through paintings) or a performance (as in theater or music), and behaviors are seen as nothing more than playing roles, following rules, or carrying out plans. The theory of practice says that knowledge objects are made, not just stored. The habitus, which is a set of structured, organizing dispositions, is what makes this possible. Bourdieu wrote about this in 1990 (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 396). In other words, our background, the people we know, and the things we've done in the past all affect what we understand and know.
The passage indicates that one can forgo objectivist idealism without compromising the active engagement in seeing the world. This means putting yourself in "real activity as such (Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397)," which means being actively present in the world so that the world can tell you what needs to be done and said. This calls for moving away from the realism that characterizes objectivism and a return to practice, the place where dialectic takes place, and how opus operandum and modus operandi interact Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397).
The "situational analysis" technique, which emphasizes the observation of individuals in many social contexts, is confined within the bounds of the rule and the exception. Bourdieu contends that there is a certain kind of logic that applies to daily acts, and that this logic is distinct from the formal, academic logic Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397). The habitus and social environment in which individuals function both have a role in shaping this practical logic. “Thus, the method known as situational analysis, which consists of observing people in a variety of social situations in order to determine the way in which individuals are able to exercise choices within the limits of a specified social structure” Gluckman (1961, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 397).
**B.**
**_Modern Day – Surveillance, Subject, Power, and Discipline_**
The emphasis on standardized testing in school systems can be seen as a form of discipline, enforcing conformity and obedience to authority. The tight rules and regulations that are put on students show this even more clearly by shaping their behavior and way of thinking to fit with societal norms. For example, standardized tests in schools not only check how well students are doing in school, but they also set up a system where students learn to follow the rules and please adults in charge. Students are also subject to strict rules and regulations, which are similar to disciplinary actions that change behavior and thought to fit social norms. This shows how widespread discipline is in schools. The school's approach to disciplining bad behavior has come under scrutiny. For instance, a child who is being bullied may get an unjustified blow to the mouth. The Shelby County School System in Alabama placed both children on "in-school suspension" for the 2023–2024 academic year while they looked into the incident. The actual setting is a blank room with a Chromebook and no one-on-one teaching for a middle schooler who was subsequently determined to be "innocent." During public hearings, families of children who were subjected to exclusionary discipline made a strong case for the legislation, telling lawmakers about their experiences of not having the right to due process (Stryens-Fernandes @al.com, 2024). The summer of 2024, the State of Alabama passed a bill that I support which makes it more in-line with a definite process in place before kicking a child out of the classroom. "The social world is a huge storehouse of accumulated aggression that comes to the surface when the conditions are right for it to happen" Bourdieu (1993, as cited in Gardner and Hancock, p. 392).
Monitoring employees at work and judging their performance are examples of strict rules and laws that tell workers how to act and think, making sure they follow company standards. For instance, performance reviews not only show how productive workers are, but they also give them a reason to follow the rules and guidelines set by management at work. Companies watch what their workers type and do on the internet to make sure they're following company rules and not doing anything illegal. This shows how controlled and watched modern workplaces are. This much monitoring can make workers afraid and obedient, which will eventually change how they act to fit with what the company wants.
**_Modern Day – Habitus_**
Pierre Bourdieu's idea of habitus refers to the deeply rooted habits, skills, and attitudes that people pick up as they go through life Bourdieu (1990, as cited in Garner and Hancock, 2014, p. 399) This idea is very important for understanding how people interact with and move through their social world. It is possible to use habitus to describe a number of social problems and events in modern American society, such as education and health care. The American school system often shows and promotes social differences. Rich families usually give their kids better educational tools and chances, which shapes their habits to help them do well in school and go to college. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds may have limited access to quality education due to financial constraints, lack of parental involvement, or inadequate school resources. This can result in lower academic achievement and limited future prospects for these students. In contrast, students from more affluent backgrounds may have access to a wider range of educational resources and opportunities, giving them an advantage in terms of academic success and future career prospects. Ultimately, addressing these disparities in educational opportunities based on social class is crucial in order to create a more inclusive education system.
Another area where habitus matters is access to healthcare for different social groups. Having quality, accessible healthcare affects our health and how well we thrive. People who have a habit of getting regular checkups and living a healthy life are more likely to stay healthy, while people who don't have this habit may have more health problems. The influence of social class on access to quality healthcare in the American healthcare system is significant. Those who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often face barriers such as lack of insurance, limited access to preventative care, and discriminatory practices. These disparities perpetuate a cycle of inequality in health outcomes, as those with higher social capital are able to navigate the system more effectively and receive better treatment. Bourdieu's concept of habitus helps to explain how these systemic inequalities are reproduced and maintained over time. Studying habitus can provide insights into the functioning of social systems and the interactions within social settings. It highlights the significance of addressing fundamental imbalances.
**_Modern Day – Logic of Practice_**
In applying Bourdieu's theory of practice to current American society, one can see how social hierarchies are maintained and reproduced through various cultural practices. The ways in which individuals navigate social spaces, consume cultural goods, and engage in symbolic rituals all play a role in reinforcing existing power dynamics. By analyzing these practices through the lens of Bourdieu's theory, one can gain a deeper understanding of how social inequality is perpetuated and potentially identify ways to challenge and disrupt these structures. One way to understand the concept of "cultural capital" is the way that some cultural preferences and tastes are rewarded and valued in society, which causes people who do not fit in to be excluded. Additionally, Bourdieu's concept of "habitus" can be observed in how individuals from different social backgrounds internalize and embody certain behaviors and attitudes that shape their interactions and opportunities within society. The country was shocked when the US Supreme Court reversed affirmative action. Thomas, a black justice, made his view known that he is against affirmative action because of the attached stigma (Totenberg, 2023). For instance, individuals from privileged backgrounds may have been raised with a sense of entitlement and confidence that allows them to navigate social situations more easily, while those from disadvantaged backgrounds may feel out of place and struggle to assert themselves. An example is Harvard's legacy admissions. People have talked a lot about and looked closely at Harvard's legacy admissions, which give students with family ties to the school special attention when it comes to the admissions process. Some people say that this practice is unfair to students of color because it favors white candidates. The Supreme Court's choice to end affirmative action in higher education made the argument stronger because it still let schools prioritize children of donors and legacy students. Scholarly and donor-related applicants from Harvard are six times more likely to be white; 70% of those who apply are white (Casey, 2023). Eliminating legacy choices could change the racial makeup of the accepted students, which could mean that more students of color can go. A study found that 43% of white students accepted to Harvard were legacy students, athletes, children of teachers, or relatives of donors. For Black, Latino, and Asian American students, this number dropped by a huge amount.
**References**
Casey, M. (2023, July 25).
_Education Department opens an investigation into Harvard’s legacy admissions_. AP News.
[https://apnews.com/article/legacy-admissions-harvard-affirmative-action-diversity-24321f3814d5feec6d380d18c8b6c2e1Links to an external site.](https://apnews.com/article/legacy-admissions-harvard-affirmative-action-diversity-24321f3814d5feec6d380d18c8b6c2e1)
Garner, R., & Black Hawk Hancock. (2014).
_Social Theory: Continuity and Confrontation: A Reader._ University of Toronto Press; Toronto.
stryens-fernandes @al.com, S. T.-F. |. (2024, April 26).
_Alabama passes bill making it harder to kick students out of school_. Al.
[https://www.al.com/education/2024/04/alabama-passes-bill-making-it-harder-to-kick-students-out-of-school.htmlLinks to an external site.](https://www.al.com/education/2024/04/alabama-passes-bill-making-it-harder-to-kick-students-out-of-school.html)
Totenberg, N. (2023, June 29).
_Supreme Court Guts Affirmative Action, Effectively Ending Race-Conscious Admissions_. NPR.
[https://www.npr.org/2023/06/29/1181138066/affirmative-action-supreme-court-decisionLinks to an external site.](https://www.npr.org/2023/06/29/1181138066/affirmative-action-supreme-court-decision)