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**files (4)**
– ## DiscussionBoard.docx
– ## CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PDFHandout.pdf
– CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PPT.pdf
– CULTPSY3_Ch07_MulticulturalWorlds.pptx
**## DiscussionBoard.docx**
**Discussion Board**
You will be required to participate in the eight discussion prompts posted on the Canvas Discussion Board throughout the course of the semester. These will relate to assigned course materials. Your responses should incorporate course content assigned during that week and should be approximately 250 words (total, for both prompts).
Please select and reply to two of the prompts below, additionally respond to two of your colleague's comments:
1. At the customs gate of your country’s busiest international airport, two people are arriving as landed immigrants. As an immigrant support worker, you are tasked with determining how best to allocate resources in helping different immigrants. To do that, you must first determine how successfully each person will be at acculturating. Looking at the files for the landed immigrants, you see that Grace is coming from the United States, a country that is very similar to your country. On the other hand, Cecilia is coming from Mongolia, a country that is very dissimilar to your country. Based on the concept of cultural distance, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) for each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
2. Mike and Steph are a married couple who will soon be moving to a new country. This new country has a culture in which the population is generally pretty low on extraversion. Mike is very high on extraversion; Steph is very low in extraversion. Based on the concept of cultural fit, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) associated with each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
3. Your new research project is studying cultural differences between European-Canadians and Japanese-Canadians in terms of self-awareness. Your research partner decides to give all your participants an English questionnaire, thinking that the language of the questionnaire does not affect how the Japanese-Canadians would think. According to research about frame-switching, do you agree with your research partner’s perspective? Why or why not?
4. As a CEO of a multinational graphics design company, you are tasked with looking for the most creative applicant. Before you are three equally qualified applicants with one important difference regarding their travel history: Michael has lived for several years in each of two different countries; Stephanie has lived in one country and has only visited four others as a tourist (each visit was for one week); and Robert has only ever lived in one country. You give them a creative task by giving the following instructions: “Here is a brick. Write down as many uses for this brick as you can think of.” Higher numbers of responses mean greater creativity. Draw a graph to depict what results you would expect from each applicant.
5. Your father wants to encourage you to travel to as many places as possible and stay in each place as long as possible. It does not matter what cultures you live in—it will all benefit your creativity. Based on research on culture and creativity, do you agree with his assertions? Why or why not?
**## CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PDFHandout.pdf**
1
Lecture PowerPoint
Slides
By
Benjamin Cheung
Cultural Psychology
Third Edition
Steven J. Heine
Chapter 6—Self and Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Understand how self-descriptors tend to vary across different cultures
• Differentiate between independent and interdependent views of self
• Explain interpersonal consequences for independent and
interdependent views of self
• Differentiate between individualism and collectivism
• Relate individualism/collectivism to independent/interdependent views
of self
• Understand how to reconcile cultural differences with individual
variability
• Understand how various cultural variables explain cultural differences in
gender equality
• Define gender essentialism
• Understand how one’s self-concept may differ across different contexts
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
2
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Explain the relationship between cognitive dissonance and cultural
differences in self-consistency
• Differentiate between subjective and objective self-awareness
• Differentiate between incremental and entity theories of self
• Understand the Five Factor Model of personality
• Differentiate between the five factors of the Five Factor Model of
personality
• Reconcile the difference between cultural variability and universality of
personality structures
• Explain cultural differences in concepts related to self-concepts
• Discuss general cultural differences in self-concepts
• Understand how cultural differences in self-concepts are associated
with cultural differences in observable behaviors
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Overriding Themes
in This Chapter
There are aspects of self-concept that are
universal and others that are culturally
variable.
Such differences have important
implications for our social interactions and
perceptions of them.
Something as basic as “how we view
ourselves” differs greatly across cultures.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
If someone asked you to complete the
sentence, “I am…,” how would you
complete it? How would you describe
yourself?
Researchers have found cultural
differences in such self-descriptors.
3
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Researchers have suggested the
existence of a fundamental difference in
how the self is subjectively organized.
Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue that
this difference is based on people having
either an independent or interdependent
view of self.
Why I Am Who I am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Independent view of the self
4
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Interdependent view of the self
Why I Am Who I Am
A neural basis exists for this distinction
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Another underlying difference between many
cultures is individualism/collectivism.
Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize
independent aspects of the self.
• Values distinctiveness and self-reliance
Collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize
interdependent aspects of the self (e.g. close
relationships, group memberships).
5
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
What areas have higher levels of individualism and
collectivism?
Individualism and Collectivism
Regional differences:
Within the United States, Hawaii and the
states of the Confederate South score the
highest in collectivism.
On the other hand, the Mountain West and
Great Plains states, the Northeast, and the
Midwest are the least collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
There is evidence that in Iceland, those
with higher socioeconomic status versus
lower socioeconomic status tend to place
differently: higher SES predicts higher
individualism scores, whereas lower SES
predicts higher collectivism scores.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
6
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
This pattern holds within the United States
as well, with people in the middle class
acting in ways that are more individualistic
than people in the working class, which
instead acts in ways that are more
collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Other than individualism/collectivism:
• Power distance
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Vertical-horizontal social structure
• Social cynicism
• Social complexity
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Caution with
Individualism/Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism/collectivism is not meant to
be a dichotomy.
In reality, people embody varying degrees
of both.
• The same dynamic applies to a given culture
as well (e.g. while Americans are generally
individualistic, some are collectivistic, and
some are more/less individualistic than
others).
7
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Unsurprisingly, research has shown that
independence, as measured by
assertiveness and agency, and
interdependence, as measured by
collectivism and relatedness, have cultural
differences.
In terms of gender, however, few
differences emerge—in fact, the only
reliable difference is in terms of
relatedness.
Culture and Gender
Cultures around the world have widely
different views on whether roles,
obligations, and rights of men and women
should be different.
• High on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Finland and Germany.
• Low on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Pakistan and Nigeria.
Males and females in a given culture
share similar gender attitudes.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Culture and Gender
Males generally have more traditional
gender views than females.
Some predictors of higher gender
egalitarianism include:
• Religion
• Greater individualism
• Urbanization
Note that these are correlations not
causes of gender egalitarianism.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
8
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Bosterup (1970) argued that culture
differences in gender norms may result
from type of agricultural method.
• In particular, cultures that rely primarily on
ploughs are expected to be associated with
more gender inequality.
» Children often stay with women due to dangers of
being around ploughs (and large animals that pull
ploughs).
» Strong division of labor is thus established.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Alesina, Giuliano, and Nunn (2011)
investigated cultures that primarily used
ploughs during and before nineteenth
century versus those that did not
• Those that relied on ploughs before were
currently still low on gender egalitarianism
and less female labor force participation.
• The same was found in the United States with
immigrants’ cultures of origin as a predictor.
• Evidence of persistence of culture
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
9
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Essentialized = reflecting some
underlying, unchangeable essence
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In the United States, the male gender is
seen as being more essentialized and
people are more accepting of women
engaging in “masculine” activities; but this is
not the same for men engaging in “feminine”
activities.
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In India, the reverse is true. One study
found that people believe that if you
replaced a woman’s brain with a man’s
brain, the woman would act like a woman;
but if you replaced a man’s brain with a
woman’s brain, the man would then like a
woman, suggestive of greater essentialism
in being a woman.
10
Self-Consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Consistency
Researchers have noted cultural differences in
the level of self-consistency shown by
participants.
In one study, participants were asked to sit in
different contexts (e.g. professor’s office, with
another student) and describe themselves.
• Japanese participants varied in their self-descriptors
depending on the context.
• American participants responded similarly across
contexts.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Questions for Consideration
How can this difference be explained
using the independent/interdependent
views of self that were discussed earlier?
What challenge(s) does this pose for
cross-cultural studies?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
11
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Cognitive dissonance: We have strong
motivations to be consistent, therefore:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Seeing own inconsistency Feeling distress
Feeling distress Compelled to resolve dissonance
Compulsion Change attitudes or change behaviors
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Dissonance is especially salient after making
a choice between equally desirable options.
• After choosing between two equally desirable
alternatives, we tend to rationalize why we made
our choice:
» We often emphasize what made the chosen option
desirable and downplay that which made it
undesirable.
» We do the opposite for the option not chosen.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Some research suggests, that East Asians are
also motivated to be consistent, but in different
ways.
Accordingly, East Asians don’t rationalize after
making a choice…for themselves.
• When making a choice for someone else, they do
rationalize their choice.
12
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
In terms of consistency with past behavior:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why Be Consistent?
Suh (2002): cultures differ in the benefits derived
from self-consistency.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Awareness
People can have subjective or objective self-
awareness.
• Subjective self-awareness = taking on
perspective of a subject—an “I” perspective
» Attention focused on outside world, not with the self.
• Objective self-awareness = people experience
themselves as an object—a “me” perspective
» Attention directed inward, as though an audience
were evaluating subject.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
13
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Less concerned with others’
assessments of them
Often have subjective self-
awareness
Independent view of the self
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Often have objective self-
awareness
More concerned with others’
assessments of them
Interdependent view of the self
Implicit Theories of the Self
Two implicit theories of the self
• Incremental theories = belief that abilities are
malleable and are capable of being changed,
with efforts
• Entity theories = belief that abilities are largely
fixed, reflecting innate features of the self
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
14
Implicit Theories of the Self
When encountering failure:
• Those with incremental theories of self respond by
redoubling efforts
• Those with entity theories of self likely respond by
blaming their own innate lack of ability
In general, incremental theories of the self are
characteristic of people with an interdependent
view of the self
Entity theories of the self are characteristic of
people with an independent view of the self.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
English has about 18,000 personality trait
words
Factor analysis: five underlying personality
factors as measured by NEO-PI-R
O penness to experience
C onscientiousness
E xtraversion
A greeableness
N euroticism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
15
Personality Across Cultures
Use of NEO-PI-R in different 50 cultures reveals
universality in the structure of five factors
However, the NEO-PI-R was created using
English terms.
• Thus, it may not capture culture-specific personality
traits.
Indeed, investigations in a number of cultures
including Spain, Greece, the Philippines, and
China have yielded additional factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Dependability
Interpersonal relatedness
Social potency
Individualism
Dependability ≈ Neuroticism
Social potency ≈ Extraversion
Individualism ≈ Agreeableness
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
16
Summary
There are cultural differences in
motivations for self-consistency and in
how people view themselves, socially
organize themselves, and describe
themselves.
While some personality factors are
universal, some cultures also appear to
have culture-specific personality factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
**CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PPT.pdf**
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**CULTPSY3_Ch07_MulticulturalWorlds.pptx**
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**CULTPSY3_Ch07_MulticulturalWorlds.pptx**
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**## DiscussionBoard.docx**
**Discussion Board**
You will be required to participate in the eight discussion prompts posted on the Canvas Discussion Board throughout the course of the semester. These will relate to assigned course materials. Your responses should incorporate course content assigned during that week and should be approximately 250 words (total, for both prompts).
Please select and reply to two of the prompts below, additionally respond to two of your colleague's comments:
1. At the customs gate of your country’s busiest international airport, two people are arriving as landed immigrants. As an immigrant support worker, you are tasked with determining how best to allocate resources in helping different immigrants. To do that, you must first determine how successfully each person will be at acculturating. Looking at the files for the landed immigrants, you see that Grace is coming from the United States, a country that is very similar to your country. On the other hand, Cecilia is coming from Mongolia, a country that is very dissimilar to your country. Based on the concept of cultural distance, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) for each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
2. Mike and Steph are a married couple who will soon be moving to a new country. This new country has a culture in which the population is generally pretty low on extraversion. Mike is very high on extraversion; Steph is very low in extraversion. Based on the concept of cultural fit, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) associated with each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
3. Your new research project is studying cultural differences between European-Canadians and Japanese-Canadians in terms of self-awareness. Your research partner decides to give all your participants an English questionnaire, thinking that the language of the questionnaire does not affect how the Japanese-Canadians would think. According to research about frame-switching, do you agree with your research partner’s perspective? Why or why not?
4. As a CEO of a multinational graphics design company, you are tasked with looking for the most creative applicant. Before you are three equally qualified applicants with one important difference regarding their travel history: Michael has lived for several years in each of two different countries; Stephanie has lived in one country and has only visited four others as a tourist (each visit was for one week); and Robert has only ever lived in one country. You give them a creative task by giving the following instructions: “Here is a brick. Write down as many uses for this brick as you can think of.” Higher numbers of responses mean greater creativity. Draw a graph to depict what results you would expect from each applicant.
5. Your father wants to encourage you to travel to as many places as possible and stay in each place as long as possible. It does not matter what cultures you live in—it will all benefit your creativity. Based on research on culture and creativity, do you agree with his assertions? Why or why not?
**## CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PDFHandout.pdf**
1
Lecture PowerPoint
Slides
By
Benjamin Cheung
Cultural Psychology
Third Edition
Steven J. Heine
Chapter 6—Self and Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Understand how self-descriptors tend to vary across different cultures
• Differentiate between independent and interdependent views of self
• Explain interpersonal consequences for independent and
interdependent views of self
• Differentiate between individualism and collectivism
• Relate individualism/collectivism to independent/interdependent views
of self
• Understand how to reconcile cultural differences with individual
variability
• Understand how various cultural variables explain cultural differences in
gender equality
• Define gender essentialism
• Understand how one’s self-concept may differ across different contexts
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
2
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Explain the relationship between cognitive dissonance and cultural
differences in self-consistency
• Differentiate between subjective and objective self-awareness
• Differentiate between incremental and entity theories of self
• Understand the Five Factor Model of personality
• Differentiate between the five factors of the Five Factor Model of
personality
• Reconcile the difference between cultural variability and universality of
personality structures
• Explain cultural differences in concepts related to self-concepts
• Discuss general cultural differences in self-concepts
• Understand how cultural differences in self-concepts are associated
with cultural differences in observable behaviors
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Overriding Themes
in This Chapter
There are aspects of self-concept that are
universal and others that are culturally
variable.
Such differences have important
implications for our social interactions and
perceptions of them.
Something as basic as “how we view
ourselves” differs greatly across cultures.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
If someone asked you to complete the
sentence, “I am…,” how would you
complete it? How would you describe
yourself?
Researchers have found cultural
differences in such self-descriptors.
3
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Researchers have suggested the
existence of a fundamental difference in
how the self is subjectively organized.
Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue that
this difference is based on people having
either an independent or interdependent
view of self.
Why I Am Who I am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Independent view of the self
4
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Interdependent view of the self
Why I Am Who I Am
A neural basis exists for this distinction
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Another underlying difference between many
cultures is individualism/collectivism.
Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize
independent aspects of the self.
• Values distinctiveness and self-reliance
Collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize
interdependent aspects of the self (e.g. close
relationships, group memberships).
5
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
What areas have higher levels of individualism and
collectivism?
Individualism and Collectivism
Regional differences:
Within the United States, Hawaii and the
states of the Confederate South score the
highest in collectivism.
On the other hand, the Mountain West and
Great Plains states, the Northeast, and the
Midwest are the least collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
There is evidence that in Iceland, those
with higher socioeconomic status versus
lower socioeconomic status tend to place
differently: higher SES predicts higher
individualism scores, whereas lower SES
predicts higher collectivism scores.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
6
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
This pattern holds within the United States
as well, with people in the middle class
acting in ways that are more individualistic
than people in the working class, which
instead acts in ways that are more
collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Other than individualism/collectivism:
• Power distance
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Vertical-horizontal social structure
• Social cynicism
• Social complexity
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Caution with
Individualism/Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism/collectivism is not meant to
be a dichotomy.
In reality, people embody varying degrees
of both.
• The same dynamic applies to a given culture
as well (e.g. while Americans are generally
individualistic, some are collectivistic, and
some are more/less individualistic than
others).
7
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Unsurprisingly, research has shown that
independence, as measured by
assertiveness and agency, and
interdependence, as measured by
collectivism and relatedness, have cultural
differences.
In terms of gender, however, few
differences emerge—in fact, the only
reliable difference is in terms of
relatedness.
Culture and Gender
Cultures around the world have widely
different views on whether roles,
obligations, and rights of men and women
should be different.
• High on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Finland and Germany.
• Low on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Pakistan and Nigeria.
Males and females in a given culture
share similar gender attitudes.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Culture and Gender
Males generally have more traditional
gender views than females.
Some predictors of higher gender
egalitarianism include:
• Religion
• Greater individualism
• Urbanization
Note that these are correlations not
causes of gender egalitarianism.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
8
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Bosterup (1970) argued that culture
differences in gender norms may result
from type of agricultural method.
• In particular, cultures that rely primarily on
ploughs are expected to be associated with
more gender inequality.
» Children often stay with women due to dangers of
being around ploughs (and large animals that pull
ploughs).
» Strong division of labor is thus established.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Alesina, Giuliano, and Nunn (2011)
investigated cultures that primarily used
ploughs during and before nineteenth
century versus those that did not
• Those that relied on ploughs before were
currently still low on gender egalitarianism
and less female labor force participation.
• The same was found in the United States with
immigrants’ cultures of origin as a predictor.
• Evidence of persistence of culture
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
9
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Essentialized = reflecting some
underlying, unchangeable essence
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In the United States, the male gender is
seen as being more essentialized and
people are more accepting of women
engaging in “masculine” activities; but this is
not the same for men engaging in “feminine”
activities.
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In India, the reverse is true. One study
found that people believe that if you
replaced a woman’s brain with a man’s
brain, the woman would act like a woman;
but if you replaced a man’s brain with a
woman’s brain, the man would then like a
woman, suggestive of greater essentialism
in being a woman.
10
Self-Consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Consistency
Researchers have noted cultural differences in
the level of self-consistency shown by
participants.
In one study, participants were asked to sit in
different contexts (e.g. professor’s office, with
another student) and describe themselves.
• Japanese participants varied in their self-descriptors
depending on the context.
• American participants responded similarly across
contexts.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Questions for Consideration
How can this difference be explained
using the independent/interdependent
views of self that were discussed earlier?
What challenge(s) does this pose for
cross-cultural studies?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
11
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Cognitive dissonance: We have strong
motivations to be consistent, therefore:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Seeing own inconsistency Feeling distress
Feeling distress Compelled to resolve dissonance
Compulsion Change attitudes or change behaviors
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Dissonance is especially salient after making
a choice between equally desirable options.
• After choosing between two equally desirable
alternatives, we tend to rationalize why we made
our choice:
» We often emphasize what made the chosen option
desirable and downplay that which made it
undesirable.
» We do the opposite for the option not chosen.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Some research suggests, that East Asians are
also motivated to be consistent, but in different
ways.
Accordingly, East Asians don’t rationalize after
making a choice…for themselves.
• When making a choice for someone else, they do
rationalize their choice.
12
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
In terms of consistency with past behavior:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why Be Consistent?
Suh (2002): cultures differ in the benefits derived
from self-consistency.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Awareness
People can have subjective or objective self-
awareness.
• Subjective self-awareness = taking on
perspective of a subject—an “I” perspective
» Attention focused on outside world, not with the self.
• Objective self-awareness = people experience
themselves as an object—a “me” perspective
» Attention directed inward, as though an audience
were evaluating subject.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
13
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Less concerned with others’
assessments of them
Often have subjective self-
awareness
Independent view of the self
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Often have objective self-
awareness
More concerned with others’
assessments of them
Interdependent view of the self
Implicit Theories of the Self
Two implicit theories of the self
• Incremental theories = belief that abilities are
malleable and are capable of being changed,
with efforts
• Entity theories = belief that abilities are largely
fixed, reflecting innate features of the self
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
14
Implicit Theories of the Self
When encountering failure:
• Those with incremental theories of self respond by
redoubling efforts
• Those with entity theories of self likely respond by
blaming their own innate lack of ability
In general, incremental theories of the self are
characteristic of people with an interdependent
view of the self
Entity theories of the self are characteristic of
people with an independent view of the self.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
English has about 18,000 personality trait
words
Factor analysis: five underlying personality
factors as measured by NEO-PI-R
O penness to experience
C onscientiousness
E xtraversion
A greeableness
N euroticism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
15
Personality Across Cultures
Use of NEO-PI-R in different 50 cultures reveals
universality in the structure of five factors
However, the NEO-PI-R was created using
English terms.
• Thus, it may not capture culture-specific personality
traits.
Indeed, investigations in a number of cultures
including Spain, Greece, the Philippines, and
China have yielded additional factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Dependability
Interpersonal relatedness
Social potency
Individualism
Dependability ≈ Neuroticism
Social potency ≈ Extraversion
Individualism ≈ Agreeableness
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
16
Summary
There are cultural differences in
motivations for self-consistency and in
how people view themselves, socially
organize themselves, and describe
themselves.
While some personality factors are
universal, some cultures also appear to
have culture-specific personality factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
**CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PPT.pdf**
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**CULTPSY3_Ch07_MulticulturalWorlds.pptx**
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**## DiscussionBoard.docx**
**Discussion Board**
You will be required to participate in the eight discussion prompts posted on the Canvas Discussion Board throughout the course of the semester. These will relate to assigned course materials. Your responses should incorporate course content assigned during that week and should be approximately 250 words (total, for both prompts).
Please select and reply to two of the prompts below, additionally respond to two of your colleague's comments:
1. At the customs gate of your country’s busiest international airport, two people are arriving as landed immigrants. As an immigrant support worker, you are tasked with determining how best to allocate resources in helping different immigrants. To do that, you must first determine how successfully each person will be at acculturating. Looking at the files for the landed immigrants, you see that Grace is coming from the United States, a country that is very similar to your country. On the other hand, Cecilia is coming from Mongolia, a country that is very dissimilar to your country. Based on the concept of cultural distance, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) for each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
2. Mike and Steph are a married couple who will soon be moving to a new country. This new country has a culture in which the population is generally pretty low on extraversion. Mike is very high on extraversion; Steph is very low in extraversion. Based on the concept of cultural fit, draw the expected acculturation pattern (feelings toward host culture over time) associated with each person, assuming that both people do acculturate. For the purpose of this question, the heterogeneity/homogeneity of the host culture is irrelevant.
3. Your new research project is studying cultural differences between European-Canadians and Japanese-Canadians in terms of self-awareness. Your research partner decides to give all your participants an English questionnaire, thinking that the language of the questionnaire does not affect how the Japanese-Canadians would think. According to research about frame-switching, do you agree with your research partner’s perspective? Why or why not?
4. As a CEO of a multinational graphics design company, you are tasked with looking for the most creative applicant. Before you are three equally qualified applicants with one important difference regarding their travel history: Michael has lived for several years in each of two different countries; Stephanie has lived in one country and has only visited four others as a tourist (each visit was for one week); and Robert has only ever lived in one country. You give them a creative task by giving the following instructions: “Here is a brick. Write down as many uses for this brick as you can think of.” Higher numbers of responses mean greater creativity. Draw a graph to depict what results you would expect from each applicant.
5. Your father wants to encourage you to travel to as many places as possible and stay in each place as long as possible. It does not matter what cultures you live in—it will all benefit your creativity. Based on research on culture and creativity, do you agree with his assertions? Why or why not?
**## CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PDFHandout.pdf**
1
Lecture PowerPoint
Slides
By
Benjamin Cheung
Cultural Psychology
Third Edition
Steven J. Heine
Chapter 6—Self and Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Understand how self-descriptors tend to vary across different cultures
• Differentiate between independent and interdependent views of self
• Explain interpersonal consequences for independent and
interdependent views of self
• Differentiate between individualism and collectivism
• Relate individualism/collectivism to independent/interdependent views
of self
• Understand how to reconcile cultural differences with individual
variability
• Understand how various cultural variables explain cultural differences in
gender equality
• Define gender essentialism
• Understand how one’s self-concept may differ across different contexts
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
2
Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will:
• Explain the relationship between cognitive dissonance and cultural
differences in self-consistency
• Differentiate between subjective and objective self-awareness
• Differentiate between incremental and entity theories of self
• Understand the Five Factor Model of personality
• Differentiate between the five factors of the Five Factor Model of
personality
• Reconcile the difference between cultural variability and universality of
personality structures
• Explain cultural differences in concepts related to self-concepts
• Discuss general cultural differences in self-concepts
• Understand how cultural differences in self-concepts are associated
with cultural differences in observable behaviors
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Overriding Themes
in This Chapter
There are aspects of self-concept that are
universal and others that are culturally
variable.
Such differences have important
implications for our social interactions and
perceptions of them.
Something as basic as “how we view
ourselves” differs greatly across cultures.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
If someone asked you to complete the
sentence, “I am…,” how would you
complete it? How would you describe
yourself?
Researchers have found cultural
differences in such self-descriptors.
3
Who Am I?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Researchers have suggested the
existence of a fundamental difference in
how the self is subjectively organized.
Markus and Kitayama (1991) argue that
this difference is based on people having
either an independent or interdependent
view of self.
Why I Am Who I am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Independent view of the self
4
Why I Am Who I Am
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Interdependent view of the self
Why I Am Who I Am
A neural basis exists for this distinction
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Another underlying difference between many
cultures is individualism/collectivism.
Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize
independent aspects of the self.
• Values distinctiveness and self-reliance
Collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize
interdependent aspects of the self (e.g. close
relationships, group memberships).
5
Individualism and Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
What areas have higher levels of individualism and
collectivism?
Individualism and Collectivism
Regional differences:
Within the United States, Hawaii and the
states of the Confederate South score the
highest in collectivism.
On the other hand, the Mountain West and
Great Plains states, the Northeast, and the
Midwest are the least collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
There is evidence that in Iceland, those
with higher socioeconomic status versus
lower socioeconomic status tend to place
differently: higher SES predicts higher
individualism scores, whereas lower SES
predicts higher collectivism scores.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
6
Individualism and Collectivism
Socioeconomic status differences within
same country:
This pattern holds within the United States
as well, with people in the middle class
acting in ways that are more individualistic
than people in the working class, which
instead acts in ways that are more
collectivistic.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism and Collectivism
Other than individualism/collectivism:
• Power distance
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Vertical-horizontal social structure
• Social cynicism
• Social complexity
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Caution with
Individualism/Collectivism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Individualism/collectivism is not meant to
be a dichotomy.
In reality, people embody varying degrees
of both.
• The same dynamic applies to a given culture
as well (e.g. while Americans are generally
individualistic, some are collectivistic, and
some are more/less individualistic than
others).
7
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Unsurprisingly, research has shown that
independence, as measured by
assertiveness and agency, and
interdependence, as measured by
collectivism and relatedness, have cultural
differences.
In terms of gender, however, few
differences emerge—in fact, the only
reliable difference is in terms of
relatedness.
Culture and Gender
Cultures around the world have widely
different views on whether roles,
obligations, and rights of men and women
should be different.
• High on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Finland and Germany.
• Low on gender egalitarianism are countries
like Pakistan and Nigeria.
Males and females in a given culture
share similar gender attitudes.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Culture and Gender
Males generally have more traditional
gender views than females.
Some predictors of higher gender
egalitarianism include:
• Religion
• Greater individualism
• Urbanization
Note that these are correlations not
causes of gender egalitarianism.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
8
Culture and Gender
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Bosterup (1970) argued that culture
differences in gender norms may result
from type of agricultural method.
• In particular, cultures that rely primarily on
ploughs are expected to be associated with
more gender inequality.
» Children often stay with women due to dangers of
being around ploughs (and large animals that pull
ploughs).
» Strong division of labor is thus established.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Origins of Gender (In)equality
Alesina, Giuliano, and Nunn (2011)
investigated cultures that primarily used
ploughs during and before nineteenth
century versus those that did not
• Those that relied on ploughs before were
currently still low on gender egalitarianism
and less female labor force participation.
• The same was found in the United States with
immigrants’ cultures of origin as a predictor.
• Evidence of persistence of culture
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
9
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Essentialized = reflecting some
underlying, unchangeable essence
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In the United States, the male gender is
seen as being more essentialized and
people are more accepting of women
engaging in “masculine” activities; but this is
not the same for men engaging in “feminine”
activities.
Gender and Essentialism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
In India, the reverse is true. One study
found that people believe that if you
replaced a woman’s brain with a man’s
brain, the woman would act like a woman;
but if you replaced a man’s brain with a
woman’s brain, the man would then like a
woman, suggestive of greater essentialism
in being a woman.
10
Self-Consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Consistency
Researchers have noted cultural differences in
the level of self-consistency shown by
participants.
In one study, participants were asked to sit in
different contexts (e.g. professor’s office, with
another student) and describe themselves.
• Japanese participants varied in their self-descriptors
depending on the context.
• American participants responded similarly across
contexts.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Questions for Consideration
How can this difference be explained
using the independent/interdependent
views of self that were discussed earlier?
What challenge(s) does this pose for
cross-cultural studies?
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
11
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Cognitive dissonance: We have strong
motivations to be consistent, therefore:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Seeing own inconsistency Feeling distress
Feeling distress Compelled to resolve dissonance
Compulsion Change attitudes or change behaviors
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
Dissonance is especially salient after making
a choice between equally desirable options.
• After choosing between two equally desirable
alternatives, we tend to rationalize why we made
our choice:
» We often emphasize what made the chosen option
desirable and downplay that which made it
undesirable.
» We do the opposite for the option not chosen.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Some research suggests, that East Asians are
also motivated to be consistent, but in different
ways.
Accordingly, East Asians don’t rationalize after
making a choice…for themselves.
• When making a choice for someone else, they do
rationalize their choice.
12
Implications of
Self-(In)consistency
In terms of consistency with past behavior:
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Why Be Consistent?
Suh (2002): cultures differ in the benefits derived
from self-consistency.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Self-Awareness
People can have subjective or objective self-
awareness.
• Subjective self-awareness = taking on
perspective of a subject—an “I” perspective
» Attention focused on outside world, not with the self.
• Objective self-awareness = people experience
themselves as an object—a “me” perspective
» Attention directed inward, as though an audience
were evaluating subject.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
13
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Less concerned with others’
assessments of them
Often have subjective self-
awareness
Independent view of the self
Self-Awareness
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Often have objective self-
awareness
More concerned with others’
assessments of them
Interdependent view of the self
Implicit Theories of the Self
Two implicit theories of the self
• Incremental theories = belief that abilities are
malleable and are capable of being changed,
with efforts
• Entity theories = belief that abilities are largely
fixed, reflecting innate features of the self
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
14
Implicit Theories of the Self
When encountering failure:
• Those with incremental theories of self respond by
redoubling efforts
• Those with entity theories of self likely respond by
blaming their own innate lack of ability
In general, incremental theories of the self are
characteristic of people with an interdependent
view of the self
Entity theories of the self are characteristic of
people with an independent view of the self.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
English has about 18,000 personality trait
words
Factor analysis: five underlying personality
factors as measured by NEO-PI-R
O penness to experience
C onscientiousness
E xtraversion
A greeableness
N euroticism
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
15
Personality Across Cultures
Use of NEO-PI-R in different 50 cultures reveals
universality in the structure of five factors
However, the NEO-PI-R was created using
English terms.
• Thus, it may not capture culture-specific personality
traits.
Indeed, investigations in a number of cultures
including Spain, Greece, the Philippines, and
China have yielded additional factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
Dependability
Interpersonal relatedness
Social potency
Individualism
Dependability ≈ Neuroticism
Social potency ≈ Extraversion
Individualism ≈ Agreeableness
Personality Across Cultures
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
16
Summary
There are cultural differences in
motivations for self-consistency and in
how people view themselves, socially
organize themselves, and describe
themselves.
While some personality factors are
universal, some cultures also appear to
have culture-specific personality factors.
© 2016 by W. W. Norton & Company
**CULTPSY3_Chapter6_PPT.pdf**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/cultpsy3-chapter6-ppt-pdf)
**CULTPSY3_Ch07_MulticulturalWorlds.pptx**
This file is too large to display. [View in new window](https://www.sweetstudy.com/files/cultpsy3-ch07-multiculturalworlds-pptx)